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1. Veterans often have an aptitude for fixing electric systems, particularly in harsh conditions. Those skills can translate into a career as an electrical mechanic. Electrical technicians need to know how to read blueprints and circuit diagrams, and how to repair and replace electrical components, such as circuits and fuse boxes.
2. Describing the production of electricity by mechanical motion; especially in a transducer.
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The electrical system of a car is a closed circuit with an independent power source the battery. It operates on a small fraction of the power of a household circuit.

Current flows along a single cable from the battery to the component being powered, and back to the battery through the car's metal body. The body is connected to the earth terminal of the battery by a thick cable.

To explain the initiation mechanism of alternating current in an electric circuit containing the dynamic capacitor a model of mechanic- electrical transformation is suggested to use. In such a model, electric charges disposed between the capacitor plates serve as a cause of measured signal in contrast to the contact potential difference, which is considered as the main base in the Kelvin's.

This type of circuit is called an earth-return system any part of it connected to the car body is said to be earthed.

The strength of the current is measured in amperes (amps); the pressure that drives it round the circuit is called voltage (volts). Modern cars have a 12 volt battery. Its capacity is measured in amp/hours. A 56 amp/hour battery should be able to deliver a current of 1 amp for 56 hours, or 2 amps for 28 hours.

If the battery voltage drops, less current flows, and eventually there is not enough to make the components work.

The extent to which a wire resists the flow of current is called resistance, and is measured in ohms.

Thin wires conduct less easily than thick ones, because there is less room for the electrons to travel through.

The energy needed to push current through a resistance is transformed into heat. This can be useful, for example in the very thin filament of a light bulb, which glows white hot.

However, a component with a high current consumption must not be connected using wires which are too thin, or the wires will overheat, blow a fuse, or burn out.

All the electrical units of measurement are interrelated: a pressure of 1 volt causes a current of 1 amp to flow through a resistance of 1 ohm. Volts divided by ohms equal amps. For example, a light bulb with a resistance of 3 ohms, in a 12 volt system, consumes 4 amps.

This means it must be connected using wires thick enough to carry 4 amps comfortably.

Often the power consumption of a component will be stated in watts, which are found by multiplying amps and volts. The lamp in the example consumes 48 watts.

Electricity flows from a battery in one direction only, and some components work only if the flow through them is in the correct direction.

This acceptance of a one-way flow is called polarity. On most cars the negative () battery terminal is earthed and the positive (+) one feeds the electrical system.

This is called a negative earth system, and when buying an electrical accessory a radio, for example check that it is of a type suitable for your car's system. Fitting a radio with the incorrect polarity will damage the set, but most car radios have an external switch for setting the polarity to suit that of the car. Switch to the correct setting before fitting.

If the wrong-sized wire is used, or if a wire becomes broken or disconnected, this can cause an accidental short circuit which bypasses the resistance of the component. The current in the wire may become dangerously high and melt the wire or cause a fire.

To guard against this, ancillary circuits have fuses.

The most common type of fuse is a short length of thin wire enclosed in a heatproof casing often glass.

The size of the fuse wire is the thinnest that can carry the normal current of the circuit without overheating, and it is rated in amps.

The sudden surge of high current in a short circuit makes the fuse wire melt, or 'blow', breaking the circuit.

When this happens, see if there is a short circuit or a disconnection, then install a new fuse of the correct amperage rating (See Checking and replacing fuses).

There are many fuses, each protecting a small group of components, so that one blown fuse does not shut down the whole system. Many of the fuses are grouped together in a fuse box, but there may also be line fuses in the wiring.

A circuit usually includes more than one component, such as bulbs in the lighting circuits. It matters whether they are connected in series one after the other or in parallel side by side.

A headlamp bulb, for example, is designed to have a degree of resistance so that it consumes a certain current to glow normally.

But there are at least two headlamps in the circuit. If they were connected in series, electric current would have to go through one headlamp to get to the other.

The current would encounter the resistance twice, and the double resistance would halve the current, so that the bulbs would glow only feebly.

Connecting the bulbs in parallel means that electricity goes through each bulb only once.

Some components must be connected in series. For example, the sender in the fuel tank varies its resistance according to the amount of fuel in the tank, and 'sends' a small electrical current to the fuel gauge.

The two components are connected in series so that the varying resistance in the sender will affect the position of the needle on the gauge.

The starter motor has its own heavy cable, direct from the battery. The ignition circuit furnishes the high-tension impulses to the sparkplugs; and the charging system includes the generator, which recharges the battery. All the other circuits are called ancillary (subsidiary) circuits.

Most are wired through the ignition switch, so that they work only when the ignition is switched on.

This prevents you accidentally leaving something switched on which might cause the battery to go flat.

The side and tail lights, however, which you may need to leave on when the car is parked, are always wired independently of the ignition switch.

When fitting extra accessories, such as a rear window heater which consumes a heavy current, always wire it through the ignition switch.

Some ancillary components can be operated without the ignition turned on by turning the switch to the 'auxiliary' position. A radio is usually wired through this switch, so that it can be played with the engine off.

Wire and cable sizes are classified by the maximum amperage that they can carry safely.

A complex network of wires runs through the car. To avoid confusion, each wire is colour coded (but only within the car: there is no national or international system of colour-coding).

Most car handbooks and service manuals include a wiring diagram which can be difficult to follow.

The colour-coding, however, is a useful guide to tracing wiring.

Where wires run side-by-side they are bound together in a bundle, in a plastic or fabric sheath, to keep them tidy and less difficult to fit.

This bundle of wires stretches over the length of the car, with single wires or small groups of wires emerging where necessary, and is called the wiring loom.

Modern cars often need room for many wires in confined spaces. Some manufacturers now use printed circuits instead of bundles of wires, particularly at the rear of the instrument panel.

Printed circuits are plastic sheets on which copper tracks have been 'printed'. Components are plugged directly into the tracks.

Electrician and Mechanic was an American science and technology magazine published from 1890^[1] to January 1914 when it merged with Modern Electrics to become Modern Electrics & Mechanics.^[2] In July 1914, incorporated with Popular Electricity and the World's Advance and the title became Popular Electricity and Modern Mechanics.^[2] The new publisher, Modern Publishing, began a series of magazine mergers and title changes so numerous that librarians began to complain. In October 1915 the title became Popular Science Monthly and the magazine is still published under that name today.

Origin[edit]

Bubier's Popular Electrician (founded 1890) was acquired by Frank R. Fraprie and the newly formed Sampson Publishing Company in May 1906. The name was changed to Electrician & Mechanic with the July issue.^[3] The editors were Frank Fraprie, Arthur Eugene Watson and Mary Otis Sampson. Sampson was also the treasurer and director of the publishing company. (Fraprie and Sampson were married in 1911.^[4])

By 1912, Electrician and Mechanic had absorbed three other magazines; Amateur Work, Building Craft and Collins Wireless Bulletin. The magazine typically had about 100 pages and each issue covered a wide variety of topics in electricity, wireless radio, machining, mechanical drawing, wood working and chemistry. There were articles for radio technicians such as 'The Calculation of Inductance' that details how to design and wind coils for a wireless telegraphy set. A skilled machinist might read about 'The Production of Accurate Screw-Threads in a Lathe'. There were also articles for the hobbyist readers. Woodworkers could find plans for an armchair or a simple letter box.^[5]

Mergers[edit]

Hugo Gernsback's Electro Importing Company catalogs had elaborate instructions on how to use the electrical and radio parts they sold. These catalogs spawned Modern Electrics in April 1908 and the magazine had over 100,000 readers by 1911.^[6] In March 1913, Gernsback sold the magazine and the Modern Publishing Company to his business partner, Orland Ridenour.^[7] Modern Publishing acquired Electrician and Mechanic and merged it with Modern Electrics. The new magazine, Modern Electrics and Mechanics, was published from January 1914 to June 1914.^[8] Gernsback started a new magazine, The Electrical Experimenter, in May 1913.

Popular Electricity Publishing of Chicago merged Popular Electricity in Plain English (founded May 1908) with World's Advance in September 1913.^[9] Modern Publishing acquired Popular Electricity and World's Advance and combined it with Modern Electrics and Mechanics in July 1914. The new magazine was Popular Electricity and Modern Mechanics but it soon changed the title to Modern Mechanics and was World's Advance by April 1915.

The numerous title changes were a topic of discussion in library journals of the time. Libraries would have individual magazines bound into books. A typical size magazine would be bound into volumes every six months, magazine publishers would normally change titles or merge magazines on these volume boundaries. This was not the case with Modern Publishing. The following editorial appeared in the April 1915 Bulletin of Bibliography.^[10]

The World's Advance is a new title in magazinedom, and April 1915, is the initial number. Oh, no, not a new magazine, it is vol. 30, number 4; it was Modern Mechanics recently, and back of that — but let it tell its own story of absorptions, marriages, serial-cannibalism or whatever you may call its checkered life hitherto. The World's Advance, formerly Modern Mechanics, with which is combined Popular Electricity and The World's Advance, Modern Electrics and Mechanics, Electrician and Mechanic, is the outgrowth of a number of consolidated magazines. First was Popular Electrician founded in Lynn, Mass., in 1890, taken over later by Electrician and Mechanic, Boston. This absorbed Amateur Work, and Building Craft and in January 1914, was itself merged in Modern Electrics of New York, and called Modern Electrics and Mechanics. Then Popular Electricity and the World's Advance of Chicago was combined with it under the name of Popular Electricity and Modern Mechanics. This name being too long Modern Mechanics was decided upon for the new name, but this being found liable to confusion with a similar periodical [called Popular Mechanics], the name World's Advance was adopted.' Some pedigree! But it's now a capital magazine for those of a mechanical turn of mind, and is profusely illustrated.

World's Advance had a readership of 135,000 'men' by 1915. A notice in a trade publication for advertisers stated, '72% of its readers are over 21 years old and it is exclusively a man's publication without waste circulation among women and children.'^[11]

Popular Science Monthly[edit]

Popular Science Monthly was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans. It was a science and technology magazine equivalent to Scientific American or Science.^[12]James McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers. By 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. In a September 1915 editorial, Cattell related these difficulties to his readers and that the journal had been 'transferred' to a group that wanted the name for a general audience magazine. Next month the subscribers would be receive a new journal titled Scientific Monthly that would continue the academic tradition.^[13]Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science.

The new owners were Henry Fisher, Robert Wilson and Oliver Capen of Modern Publishing. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and World's Advance. The volume number (Vol. 87, No. 4) was that of Popular Science but the content was that of World's Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, a former editor of Scientific American^[14][15]

The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic. The old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations. The new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaembffert was writing for 'the home craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science.' The circulation doubled in the first year.^[12]

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Popular Science Monthly was two different magazines for during the last half of 1915 and this presented a dilemma for librarians who needed to have them bound into book volumes. The library journal, Bulletin of Bibliography, printed the conflicting recommendations received from the new and old publishers. The journal editor promised to publish a 'list of librarians and book-binders who have gone to Battle Creek to recuperate.'^[16]

Title changes[edit]

Source for volume and issue numbers: Catalog of Copyright Entries, Volume 9 and 10. January 1914 to December 1915.^[17]

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Covers and pages[edit]

• 1893 Ad for Bubier's Popular Electrician

• Electrician and Mechanic February 1913 Contents

• Electrician and Mechanic February 1913

• Electrician and Mechanic February 1913 Arm Chair

• Modern Electrics and Mechanics April 1914

• Modern Electrics and Mechanics April 1914

• Popular Science Monthly September 1915

• World's Advance July 1915

• World's Advance July 1915 Contents

• World's Advance July 1915

• World's Advance July 1915

• World's Advance July 1915

Publications[edit]

• Electrician and Mechanic (January–June 1912) from Harvard University Library on Google Books
• Electrician and Mechanic (January–June 1913) from Harvard University Library on Google Books
• Popular Science Monthly May 1872 to September 1915 from Biodiversity Heritage Library
• Modern Mechanics and World's Advance (January–June 1915) from Prelinger Library on Internet Archive
• World's Advance (July–September 1915) from Prelinger Library on Internet Archive
• Popular Science Monthly (January–June 1918) from New York Public Library on Google Books

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References[edit]

1. ^Severance, Henry Ormal; Charles Harper Walsh (April 1908). Guide to the Current Periodicals and Serials of the United States and Canada - 1909 (2nd ed.). G. Wahr. p. 115.
2. ^ ^abGates, Alice Jane (1915). Catalogue of Technical Periodicals, Libraries in the City of New York and Vicinity. Library board of the United engineering society. p. 68. 'Modern electrics and mechanics. Month Vol 1–6 no 9; vol 28 nos 1–6. July 1908–June 1914. In 1914 combined with Electrician and mechanic and became Modern Electrics and Mechanics. The volume number is changed to 28. In July 1914 incorporated with Popular Electricity and the World's Advance and the title became Popular Electricity and Modern Mechanics.'
3. ^Catalog of Copyright Entries. Part 2: Periodicals. Library of Congress, Copyright Office. July–December 1906. pp. 25, 66. Title was Bubier's Popular Electrician in June 1906 (Vol. 16, No. 6) and Electrician and Mechanic in July 1906 (Vol. 17, No. 1).
4. ^Class Of 1898 (June 1913). Harvard College Class of 1898: Quindecennial Report. p. 113.
5. ^Trevert, Edward; Watson, Arthur Eugene (February 1913). 'Table of Contents'. Electrician and Mechanic. 26 (2): 69.
6. ^Westfahl, Gary (1998). The Mechanics of Wonder: The Creation of the Idea of Science Fiction. Liverpool University Press. p. 75. ISBN978-0-85323-563-7.
7. ^Ridenour, Orland J. (January 1914). 'Statement of the ownership, management, circulation'. Modern Electrics and Mechanics. 28 (1): 92. Orland J. Ridenour was the publisher and sole owner of Modern Publishing Company, 231 Fulton Street, New York.
8. ^Ashley, Michael (2000). Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the Beginning to 1950. Liverpool University Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN978-0-85323-855-3.
9. ^Gates, Alice Jane (1915). Catalogue of Technical Periodicals, Libraries in the City of New York and Vicinity. Library board of the United engineering society. p. 126. Last issue of Popular Electricity is Vol. 6 No. 4 (August 1913), merged with World's Advance, used volume numbers of Popular Electricity
10. ^Faxon, Frederick Winthrop; Bates, Mary Estella; Sutherland, Anne C. (April 1915). 'Editorial Comment: Magazine Notes'. Bulletin of Bibliography and Dramatic Index. 8 (6): 151.
11. ^Advertisers' Directory of Leading Publications. 26. Chicago: Charles Fuller Company. 1915. p. 233.
12. ^ ^abNourie, Alan; Barbara Nourie (1990). American Mass Market Magazines. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 385–399. ISBN978-0-313-25254-9.
13. ^Cattell, James McKeen (September 1915). 'The Scientific Monthly and the Popular Science Monthly'. Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 87 no. 3. The Science Press. pp. 307–310.
14. ^'September's Harvest Of Important Books'. The New York Times. August 29, 1915. p. BR312. 'The Popular Science Monthly has been bought by the Modern Publishing Company of New York City and consolidated with The World's Advance, formerly Popular Electricity. The two magazines will be merged under the title of The Popular Science Monthly, beginning with the November issue. Waldemar Kaembffert for a longtime editor of the monthly will continue in that position.'
15. ^Walter, Frank Keller (1918). Periodicals for the Small Library (2nd ed.). American Library Association. p. 24. The new Popular Science Monthly is continued from World's Advance, old version in now Scientific Monthly.
16. ^Faxon, Frederick W (January 1916). 'Editorial Comment: Magazine Notes'. Bulletin of Bibliography and Dramatic Index. 9 (1): 2.
17. ^Catalog of Copyright Entries. Part 2: Periodicals. Library of Congress, Copyright Office. January–December 1914. Volumes 9 is January–December 1914 and volume 10 is January–December 1915.

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External links[edit]